New solar power material converts 90 percent of captured light into heat

By contrast, current solar absorber material functions at lower temperatures and needs to be overhauled almost every year for high temperature operations.

"We wanted to create a material that absorbs sunlight that doesn't let any of it escape. We want the black hole of sunlight," said Sungho Jin, a professor in the department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering. Jin, along with professor Zhaowei Liu of the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering professor Renkun Chen, developed the Silicon boride-coated nanoshell material. They are all experts in functional materials engineering.

The novel material features a "multiscale" surface created by using particles of many sizes ranging from 10 nanometers to 10 micrometers. The multiscale structures can trap and absorb light which contributes to the material's high efficiency when operated at higher temperatures.

Concentrating solar power (CSP) is an emerging alternative clean energy market that produces approximately 3.5 gigawatts worth of power at power plants around the globe -- enough to power more than 2 million homes, with additional construction in progress to provide as much as 20 gigawatts of power in coming years. One of the technology's attractions is that it can be used to retrofit existing power plants that use coal or fossil fuels because it uses the same process to generate electricity from steam.

Traditional power plants burn coal or fossil fuels to create heat that evaporates water into steam. The steam turns a giant turbine that generates electricity from spinning magnets and conductor wire coils. CSP power plants create the steam needed to turn the turbine by using sunlight to heat molten salt. The molten salt can also be stored in thermal storage tanks overnight where it can continue to generate steam and electricity, 24 hours a day if desired, a significant advantage over photovoltaic systems that stop producing energy with the sunset.

One of the most common types of CSP systems uses more than 100,000 reflective mirrors to aim sunlight at a tower that has been spray painted with a light absorbing black paint material. The material is designed to maximize sun light absorption and minimize the loss of light that would naturally emit from the surface in the form of infrared radiation.

The UC San Diego team's combined expertise was used to develop, optimize and characterize a new material for this type of system over the past three years. Researchers included a group of UC San Diego graduate students in materials science and engineering, Justin Taekyoung Kim, Bryan VanSaders, and Jaeyun Moon, who recently joined the faculty of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The synthesized nanoshell material is spray-painted in Chen's lab onto a metal substrate for thermal and mechanical testing. The material's ability to absorb sunlight is measured in Liu's optics laboratory using a unique set of instruments that takes spectral measurements from visible light to infrared.

Current CSP plants are shut down about once a year to chip off the degraded sunlight absorbing material and reapply a new coating, which means no power generation while a replacement coating is applied and cured. That is why DOE's SunShot program challenged and supported UC San Diego research teams to come up with a material with a substantially longer life cycle, in addition to the higher operating temperature for enhanced energy conversion efficiency. The UC San Diego research team is aiming for many years of usage life, a feat they believe they are close to achieving.

Modeled after President Kennedy's moon landing program that inspired widespread interest in science and space exploration, then-Energy Secretary Steven P. Chu launched the Sunshot Initiative in 2010 with the goal of making solar power cost competitive with other means of producing electricity by 2020.

Read More

Tiny carbon nanotube pores make big impact

A Team led by the Lawrence Livermore scientists has created a new kind of ion channel consisting of short carbon nanotubes, which can be inserted into synthetic bilayers and live cell membranes to form tiny pores that transport water, protons, small ions and DNA.

These carbon nanotube "porins" have significant implications for future health care and bioengineering applications. Nanotube porins eventually could be used to deliver drugs to the body, serve as a foundation of novel biosensors and DNA sequencing applications, and be used as components of synthetic cells.

Researchers have long been interested in developing synthetic analogs of biological membrane channels that could replicate high efficiency and extreme selectivity for transporting ions and molecules that are typically found in natural systems. However, these efforts always involved problems working with synthetics and they never matched the capabilities of biological proteins.

Unlike taking a pill which is absorbed slowly and is delivered to the entire body, carbon nanotubes can pinpoint an exact area to treat without harming surrounding other organs.

"Many good and efficient drugs that treat diseases of one organ are quite toxic to another," said Aleksandr Noy, an LLNL biophysicist who led the study and is the senior author on the paper appearing in the Oct. 30 issue of the journal, Nature. "This is why delivery to a particular part of the body and only releasing it there is much better."

The Lawrence Livermore team, together with colleagues at the Molecular Foundry at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California Merced and Berkeley campuses, and University of Basque Country in Spain created a much more efficient, biocompatible membrane pore channel out of a carbon nanotube (CNT) -- a straw-like molecule that consists of a rolled up graphene sheet.

This research showed that despite their structural simplicity, CNT porins display many characteristic behaviors of natural ion channels: they spontaneously insert into the membranes, switch between metastable conductance states, and display characteristic macromolecule-induced blockades. The team also found that, just like in the biological channels, local channel and membrane charges could control the ionic conductance and ion selectivity of the CNT porins

Read More

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA (Haber Process)

THE AMMONIA MANUFACTURING PROCESS


Ammonia is produced in a process known as the Haber process, in which nitrogen and 
hydrogen react in the presence of an iron catalyst to form ammonia. The hydrogen is formed 
by reacting natural gas and steam at high temperatures and the nitrogen is supplied from the air.
. Other gases (such as water and carbon dioxide) are removed from the gas stream and 
the nitrogen and hydrogen passed over an iron catalyst at high temperature and pressure to form the ammonia.



The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas - methane - with steam, or through the cracking of oil. Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is 80 per cent nitrogen; nearly all the rest is oxygen. When hydrogen is burned in air, the oxygen combines with the hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind.

Nitrogen and hydrogen will react together under these conditions:

a high temperature - about 450ºC
a high pressure - about 200 atmospheres (200 times normal pressure)
an iron catalyst
The reaction is reversible.

nitrogen + hydrogen --> ammonia

N2(g)  + 3H2(g) --> 2NH3(g)

The (g) indicates that the substance is a gas.

The flow chart shows the main stages in the Haber process. The reaction is reversible, and some nitrogen and hydrogen remain mixed with the ammonia. The reaction mixture is cooled so that the ammonia liquefies and can be removed. The remaining nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled.

The Haber process for making ammonia

Read More

MATERIAL BALANCE (with chemical reactions)

MATERIAL BALANCE WITH CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

Introduction:

Chemical reactions play a vital role in manufacturing process. For design of chemical
process equipment, the operating conditions such as pressure, temperature,
composition and flow of the streams should be known. The material balance and energy
balance calculations come to the rescue of the designer and allows him to calculate the
various flow rates and temperature of the streams. Assuming that the kinetic data of the
reaction is available, the overall material balance of the steady state condition will be
discussed here.



Material balances:

The general mathematical statement can be written as

Total mass entering the unit = Total mass of products leaving the unit

It should be noted that in chemical reactions, the total mass of the input remains
constant, but the total moles may or may not remain constant.

Example: Consider the shift reaction

                                                            CO +H2O  - ->    CO2 +H2

 In this, it can be observed that two moles of reactants react with each other and
produce also two moles, thus the number of moles of the reactants entering the reaction
equals the number of the products leaving the reaction.


                                               1 mole CO= 1 mole H2O
                                                                    1 mole H2
                                                                    1 mole CO2

Limiting reactant / component:

It is the reactant which is present in such proportion that it’s compete consumption by
the reaction will limit the extent to which the reaction can proceed


Excess Reactant:

Percentage excess reactant is defined as % excess quantity taken based on theoretical
requirement.
It is the amount in excess of Stoichiometric (theoretical) requirements expressed as the
percentage of Stoichiometric / theoretical requirement.

Consider a reaction
                                                                 A + B --> C
Where B is the excess reactant, then
Percent excess of B
 = mole of B supplied or fed – moles of B theoretically requiredx100
                                                    Moles of B theoretically required

Consider for example, the reaction
                                                      SO2 + 1/2O2--> SO3
 
And suppose that 100 moles SO2 /hr and 75 moles O2 /h are fed to the reactor. SO2 is
clearly the limiting reactant and to be in stoichiometric proportions, moles of O2 would
have to be 50 kmol / hr. 

ANS.                 The percent excess of O2 is therefore
                               = [(75 – 50) / 50] x 100 = 50


CONVERSION:

                                                          A + B--> C
Where A = a limiting reactant
            B = the excess reactant.

Then the conversion or fractional conversion of A is the ratio of amount of A reacted to
the amount of A charged or fed to a reactor. The percentage conversion of A is the
amount of A reacted expressed as the percentage of amount of A charged or fed to a
reactor.
The amount of A can be expressed in moles or weight of the amount of A is expressed
in moles then
                          % conversion of A = Moles of A reacted x 100
                                                               Moles of A charged or fed


YIELD and SELECTIVITY:

Consider the multiple reactions, namely a series parallel reaction, a series reaction and
a parallel reactionSeries parallel reaction 
                                                     A + B--> C
                                                     C + B--> D

Series reaction                           A --> C -->D

Parallel reaction                         A--> C
                                                    A--> D
Where C is a desired product, D is an undesired product, A is a limiting reactant.
 
Then yield of C is given as

                   Yield of C = moles of A reacted to produce C x 100
                                           Total moles of A reacted


Consider parallel reaction
                                          A --> C and A--> D
 
Where C is a desired component, D is an undesired component
In such cases, the selectivity is given as
 
Selectivity of C relative to D = moles of C (desired product) formed
                                                        Moles of D (undesired product) formed



EXAMPLE:


1. Ethylene oxide is produced by oxidation of ethylene. 100 kmol of ethylene are fed to
a reactor and the product is found to contain 80 kmol ethylene oxide and 10 kmol CO2.
Calculate
a) the % conversion of ethylene and b) the percent yield to ethylene oxide.
 

ANS:  Basis: 100 kmol ethylene fed to the reactor.

Reactions:
C2H4+1/2 O2 --> C2H4O........ ( 1 )
C2H4+3O2 --> 2CO2+2H2O....... (2)
 
80 kmol ethylene oxide is produced and this is possible only by reaction 1. As per
Stoichiometry 1kmol ethylene oxide will be produced per kmol of ehylene. Therefore
ethylene reacted for reaction 1 is 80 kmoles.
 
10 kmol of CO2 is produced and this possible through reaction 2. As per Stoichiometry 2
moles CO2 will be produced per mol ethylene.

 Therefore kmol ethylene reacted by
reaction 2 is 10/2=5 kmol.
 
Total ethylene reacted towards equation1and 2 = 80 + 5 = 85 kmol.
Total kmol of ethylene taken = 100 kmol
Therefore
 % conversion = (ethylene reacted / ethylene taken) x100
                          = (85/100) x100= 85%
 
% yield of ethylene oxide= (moles ethylene reacted to ethylene oxide /Total moles of
ethylene reacted) x100
                                           = (80/85)100=94.12%

 

Read More

Preperation Of Dyes

METHYL ORANGE INDICATOR:

Methyl orange is a pH indicator and due to its clear color change it is very often used in
titrations. Methyl orange changes color at the pH of a mid-strength acid and is usually
used in titrations for acids. Unlike a so called universal indicator, methyl orange does not
have a full spectrum of color change, but has a sharper end point.

Structure Of Methyl Orange

PREPERATION:

1. Although sulfanilic acid is insoluble in acid solutions, it is nevertheless necessary to carry out the diazotization reaction in an acid (HNO2, nitrous acid) solution. This problem can be circumvented by precipitating sulfanilic acid from a solution in which it is initially soluble. The precipitate which is formed is a fine suspension and reacts instantly with nitrous acid. The first step is to dissolve sulfanilic acid in basic solution.
2. In order to obtain the nitrosonium ion (NO+), sodium nitrite has to be treated with hydrochlorid acid. During the addition of the acid, the sulfanilic acid is precipitated out of solution as a finely divided solid, which is immediately diazotized
3. The finely divided diazonium salt is allowed to react immediately with dimethylaniline in the solution in which it was precipitated.

                                 

MALACHITE GREEN:      

                     

Malachite green is an organic compound that is used as a dyestuff and has emerged as a controversial agent in aquaculture. Malachite green is traditionally used as a dye for materials such as silk, leather, and paper.

PREPARATION:

Grignard reagents are highly susceptible to water and much care will go into ‘drying’ the reaction before 

you begin. In order to insure water is kept out of this reaction you will flame dry your glassware, use 

anhydrous ether as the solvent and your reaction vessel will contain a drying tube to dry the 

atmosphere with in the reaction apparatus. 

Before you begin this lab you may want to recrystallize 4-bromo-N,N-dimethylaniline using methanol as 

solvent. Once recrystallized make sure that all methanol has evaporated from the crystals.

Read More

AMMONOLYSIS

MANUFACTURE OF ANILINE FROM CHLOROBENZENE BY AMMONOLYSIS

Raw materials

Basis:1 ton aniline

Chlorobenzene = 2,500 lb

Ammonia solution(28%) = 7,450 lb

Cuprous oxide = 350 lb

  Manufacture

Chlorobenzene is charged into a series of horizontal, rotating high - pressure rolled steel autoclave. Approximately 0.1 mole of cuprous oxide and 4 to 5moles of 28 to 30% aqueous ammonia per mole of chlorobenzene are added. The reaction is initiated at a temperature of 180oC and is later maintained at 210 to 220°C under constant agitation. The pressure rises to 750 to 850 psi. The active catalyst is cuprous chlorine produced from cuprous oxide by the product ammonium chlorine as follows:

Cu2O + 2NH4CI  →  Cu2CI2 + 2NH3 + H2O

A large excess of ammonia solution is used to suppress the phenol producing side reaction (C6H5CI + NH3 + H2O → C6H5OH + NH4CI). If the indicated ratio of reactants is used, the rate of aniline formation is about 20 times greater than the rate of phenol formation.

The reaction products are cooled below 100°C and run to a separator. The free ammonia continues to absorption and condensing system for recovery. The settled reaction mass separates into two layers: aniline rich lower and an aqueous upper layer. The approximate distribution of reaction products not including unreacted chlorobenzene in the two layers is as follows: aniline layer 82% aniline, 5% phenol, and 1% diphenylamine; water layer 5 % aniline, 0.5% phenol, 9% chlorine ion (NH4CI), 3% cuprous oxide and 14% ammonia.

The aqueous layer is drawn from the top of the separator and is run to a neutralizer, where it is treated with sodium hydroxide or lime. A sufficient amount of alkali is used to react with the ammonium chloride and phenol. The solution is fractionally distilled, and the liberated ammonia expelled first is recovered in an absorption system. The second fraction consists of aniline and water, which are separated by decantation. The residual solution of sodium phenate and sodium chloride is filtered to remove the precipitated copper oxides, which are reused in subsequent runs.

The aniline layer is withdrawn from the bottom of the separator and treated with 50% sodium hydroxide solution. Approximately 0.2 percent of the volume of the aniline layer is used. The solution is fractionally distilled, yielding first aniline -water mixture, which is further treated as described previously. The second fraction is technically pure (97 to 90%) aniline, the residue is steam distilled, yielding diphenylamine. The phenol is recovered by acidifying the residue mostly sodium phenate and distilling. The yield of aniline is 96% based on chlorobenzene.

 m-NITROANILINE 

100 parts of dinitrobenzene is added to 1000 parts of water at 900C contained in a reducer fitted with reflux condenser and a propeller type stirrer. Upon emulsification, 245 parts of sodium sulfide (9H2O), dissolved in a minimum of water, is gradually run in. The dinitro compound is gradually reduced to m-nitro aniline, the end point being determined by the formation of a definite black streak when ferrous sulfate solution is added to filter paper spotted with some of the reducer liquor.

A modification in the preceding process involves the use of an organic solvent, which is immiscible with water, for the m-dinitrobenzene. Accordingly, 100 parts of technical dinitrobenzene, 90% purity and 160 parts of either solvent naphtha or toluene are put into reducer, and the mixture is warmed to 600C to effect solution. Then, 4000 parts of hot water is added, and the m-dinitrobenzene solution is stirred and heated to 950C. A hot polysulfide (Na2S3) solution – made by heating 720 parts of 7% Na2S with 40 parts of flowers of sulfur – is then added rather rapidly. The reaction of polysulfide is distinctly exothermic, and the charge boils vigorously, but overheating is avoided because of vaporization of solvent. Reduction of the dinitrobenzene to m-nitro aniline is found to take place quickly under such conditions.

To hot reduction mass is first filtered to remove any free sulfur, and the solvent naphtha in the filtrate is distilled with steam. The dissolved m-nitro aniline crystallizes out in the form of bright yellow crystals when the residual liquor is cooled. After washing, the product has a melting point of about 1130C and can be used directly in the manufacture of azo dyes. A yield of approximately 90–92% of theory is attainable, and the process is applicable to other m-dinitro compounds, e.g., m- dinitro derivatives of toluene and xylene.

     

Read More

BECHAMP REDUCTION

MANUFACTURE OF ANILINE FROM NITROBENZENE BY BECHAMP REDUCTION

1 Raw materials 

Basis: 1 metric ton aniline

Nitrobenzene: 1390 kg

Iron borings: 1600 kg

Hydrochloric acid: 125 kg

2 Manufacture 

Crude nitrobenzene is charge into a reducer (reactor) fitted with an efficient reflux condenser. The reducer is a steam jacketed cast iron enclosed cylindrical vessel containing an agitator. Cast iron borings (turnings) or powder (free from oil and non - ferrous metals), water and catalyst are added gradually, in small quantities, to the nitrobenzene. Generally 10 to 20% of the total iron is added at the beginning and the mixture is heated by steam to reflux temperature (200°C). The remaining iron is added over a period of time at a rate determined by the proper pressure temperature balance. The addition rate is fast enough to maintain lively reflux by the heat generated from the exothermic reaction, yet slow enough to prevent excessive hydrogen, pressure build up.

The water required for the reaction is generally in the form of aniline water recovered from the separator or column and is added to the reducer in bulk at the start or in small quantities along with the iron additions. Dilute (30%) HCl acid is added along with the water as catalyst. The acid reacts with the iron borings. Forming catalytically active iron salts. Subsequent runs may utilize aniline hydrochloric acid mother liquor as the source of the catalyst and some of the reaction water; the weight ratio of reactants is approximately 115 parts of iron borings, 0.27 parts of 100% hydrochloric acid and 60 parts of water per 100 parts of nitrobenzene. After the last addition, the reaction is heated with steam to maintain lively reflux.

At the end of the reduction (about 10 hrs. for 2250kg charge), the aniline is separated from the reducer charge by one or more of several methods, The liquid water aniline mixture may be separated from the solid iron oxide iron hydroxide sludge by steam distillation, vacuum distillation, filtration, centrifugation or siphoning. For example the finished reduction product may be neutralized with a small amount of sodium carbonate (about equal to the amount of hydrochloric acid in the charge) and allowed to settle. Most of aniline and some water siphoned off and the residual aniline is separated from the sludge by steam distillation. The sludge consisting of ferric oxide, water and small amount of ferric oxide is dumped and may be marketed after drying.

The water aniline mixture from the reducer is run to a separator where the lighter aniline separates and is withdrawn from the upper. The top layer, which contains 3 to 5% aniline, is partially distilled until the aniline content in the water is low. The residual aniline water is returned to the reducer for subsequent runs. The aniline in the distillate is separated by decantation and the water layer is redistilled to obtain the remaining aniline. An alternate procedure is to extract aniline from the aniline water with nitrobenzene.

The aniline streams from the separator and decanter are united and vacuum distilled to yield purified aniline. The yield based on nitrobenzene is approximately 95% by weight.

MECHANISM OF BECHAMP REDUCTION

Read More